Clinically Available Insulins Modern genetic engineering techniques enable specific amino acids in the molecule to be changed and the molecule subtly altered to form new preparations with advantageous properties for people with diabetes. Classification of Clinically available Insulin Preparations - Rapid Acting : Insulin lispro, Insulin Aspart Short Acting : Regular Human insulin Intermediate Acting : NPH Human Long Acting : Insulin Detemir , Insulin Degludec . Pharmacokinetics of Insulin preparations: Administered via SQ injection and absorbed directly to the systemic circulation Majority of insulin degradation happens in the Liver and Kidney Kidney is the main metabolism site Do not enter the Hepatic portal system. CLASS Onset of Action DOA Example Rapid Acting Inhaled 10 – 30 m 2-4 hrs Afrezza Oral 15 – 30 m 3 hrs Lis...
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Discuss the thermo-genic effects of thyroid hormone on body temperature Thermogenesis is the process of heat production in organisms, and it’s a vital part of the metabolic rate. Thermogenic Effects if Thyroid Hormone: Thyroid Hormone Increases The O2 consumption. Most peripheral tissues contribute to this response; heart, skeletal muscle, liver, and kidney are stimulated markedly by thyroid hormone. As a result cardiac contractility is increased. In response to cold exposure, there are low hypothalamic thyroid hormone concentrations but increased thyroid hormone levels in the periphery. When thyroid hormone levels are high, such as in hyperthyroidism, this can cause a person to feel too hot. Conversely, when thyroid hormone levels are low, as in hypothyroidism, this can cause a person to feel too cold.
Mode of action of Oral hypoglycemic Agents Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, also known as gliflozins , are a class of oral hypoglycemic agents used to lower blood glucose levels in adults with type 2 diabetes. Examples: Dapagliflozin, Empagliflozin etc. Mode of Action: They work by blocking the function of the SGLT2 protein within the kidneys (PCT, 90% glucose reabsorption). This protein is primarily tasked with the reabsorption of glucose from the glomerular ultrafiltrate . By inhibiting SGLT2, these drugs prevent the reabsorption of glucose, leading to increased urinary glucose excretion. This mechanism corrects hyperglycemia independently of insulin. As a result, blood glucose levels are reduced. Note: In addition to their glucose-lowering effect, SGLT2 inhibitors have been found to have benefits on cardiovascular and renal outcomes, independent of their effects on blood glucose. They may also promote weight loss and mo...
Low Molecular Weight Heparins (LMWHs) are a type of anticoagulant medication that work by inhibiting factor Xa, a key component in the blood clotting process. Therapeutically, LMWHs are used to prevent and treat deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE), conditions that occur when blood clots form in the deep veins of the body. MOA It inhibits activated coagulation factors of the intrinsic and common pathways, including thrombin , Xa , and IXa ; however, it has relatively little activity against factor VIIa . Low-molecular weight heparin preparations produce an anticoagulant effect mainly through inhibition of Xa by antithrombin , because the majority of molecules are of insufficient length to catalyze inhibition of thrombin . THERAPEUTIC USES OF LMWHs Prevention of deep vein thromboses in the middle and high-risk populations (surgical, orthopedic, and medical patients). Treatment of pregnancy venous thromboembolism.
Classify Antiplatelet Side effects of Antiplatelet Agents: Aspirin: Aspirin induced Asthma : Blockage of COX enzyme indirectly induces the production of Leukotrienes which is a cause of Asthma. Excessive Bleeding : Aspirin blocks the production of TXA2 in mature platelets throughout its life time (10 days). so, After using aspirin there is a greater chance of Bleeding. Clopidogrel: Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage Melena Rectal Hemorrhage Rash Abciximab: Hemorrhage hypotension Myocardial Infraction Cardiac Arrest
Which fibrinolytics principally used in surgical procedures? tenecteplase or reteplase Enumerate the most prevalent side effects of fibrinolytic Fibrinolytic agents are a class of medications used to dissolve blood clots. They work by breaking down fibrin, the protein that forms blood clots. Fibrinolytics are most commonly used to treat heart attacks and strokes, but they can also be used to treat other conditions such as pulmonary embolism and deep vein thrombosis. The major toxicity of all thrombolytic agents is hemorrhage, which results from two factors: (1) the lysis of fibrin in “physiological thrombi” at sites of vascular injury; and (2) a systemic lytic state that results from systemic formation of plasmin, which produces fibrinogenolysis and destruction of other coagulation factors (especially factors V and VIII) Other Side effects: Headache Cerebral Haemorrhage Nausea Fever Rash etc